Topic "The History of Psychology"

Many of the ideas of early researchers have made an important contribution into modern psychology.

The German physiologist W. Wundt is aptly known as the father of modern psychology. He launched the discipline as a science to be studied by means of systematic methods.

The functionalists broadened the definition of psychology. They drew attention to the importance of mental life in adapting to the environment. 

The behaviorists further enhanced an understanding of learning, with their stress on the importance of rewards and punishments. John Watson formulated the goals of behaviorism in 1913.  He was credited with discovering trial-and-error learning. 

The gestaltists reemphasized the mental processes that the behaviorists had neglected. They believed that the mind inevitably brings together the various pieces of data the sense organs register, forming them into the perception of a whole. This whole they called a Gestalt (form or pattern).

Cognitive psychology has developed since 1950s. It studies cognitive processes in many areas including learning, memory, problem solving, etc. 

Freud also made a significant contribution. Freud called attention to the frequent importance of early life and to existence of unconscious motives.

Finally, the humanists such as A. Maslow and C. Rogers stressed the uniqueness of individuals and potential for freedom of choice. 

Concepts from the past form the foundation for current approaches to different psychological problems.

Topic"The Role of Youth"

Youth is the time of life between the childhood and adulthood. The age in which a person is considered a “youth” is from 13-14 years old to up 29 years old. 

Nowadays youth is increasingly seen as a crucial segment of society. Their attitudes, values, mind-set, and priorities will determine the development of the society in the future.

Young people have always been dynamic in their approach to life. They are ready to change themselves.  

The awareness of their role in the world is the main reason for establishing numerous youth organizations and movements. Youth movements provide an opportunity for young people to put their feelings and ideals into action, to make an impact on the world around them. 

Around the world there are hundreds and thousands of voluntary youth organizations. These organizations are established to support young people, help them to express their ideas and believes. Some of youth organizations are adult-led and have government and financial support. Apart from adult-led organizations, there are many youth-led organizations

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The Role of Youth

The Role of Youth

Youth is the time of life between the childhood and adulthood (maturity). The age in which a person is considered a “youth”, and has specific rights and obligations under the law is from 13-14 years old to up 29 years old.

Nowadays youth is increasingly seen as a crucial segment of society. Youth is now believed to be a vital part of society, influencing, often forming and shaping its concepts, culture and policies. Their attitudes, values, mind-set, and priorities will determine the development of the society in the future.

Young people have always been dynamic in their approach to life. Due to their age and immature understanding, youths are always in search of ideal and values to get inspiration and basis for their life. They are ready to change themselves and have proved that they can be powerful agents of change. Today`s youth have a greater vision of the purpose of their life and what role they themselves can play in their own development. New generation youth has more awareness of their responsibility towards the development of the society.

The awareness of their role in the world is probably the main reason for establishing numerous youth organizations and movements. Youth movements provide an opportunity for young people to put their feelings and ideals into action, to make an impact on the world around them; by helping others and by building their land; and not least importance , to form connections with other young people around the globe whose ideals  match and complement their own.

Around the world there are hundreds and thousands of voluntary youth organizations. These organizations have various objectives, but there are some which are common to most of them, that is fostering and taking actions for mutual understanding and respect, democracy and human rights of people in general, and if youth in particular both locally and globally.

Some of youth organizations are adult-led and have government and financial support, for example: The World Organization of the Scout Movement,  The World Association of Girl Guides  and Girl Scouts, The World Alliance of Young Men`s Christian Associations  (YMCA), The World Young Women`s Christian Association (YWCA). There are also dozens of regional youth organizations, such as European Youth Forum or Asian Youth Council, representing the interests of youth in different regions of the world.      

The United Nations Organization has several programs particularly for young people. UNESCO`s objectives is to help empower young people, responding to their expectations and ideas, fostering useful and long-lasting skills. The United Nations Environment Program aims to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

Apart from adult-led organizations, there are many youth-led organizations.     

Topic "Psychology as a Science"

The word «psychology» is derived from the Greek word meaning «study of the soul». Psychology as a science studies mental activity and human behaviour. Psychologists study basic functions such as learning, memory, language, thinking, emotions and motives. They are involved in mental and physical health care. 

Psychology is closely connected with many sciences such as sociology and biology.  

There are three stages of developing psychology: prescientific, philosophical and scientific.   Psychology achieved scientific status when it became experimental.

The formal launching of psychology as a separate science occurred in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt opened his Psychological Institute at the University of Leipzig. Scientific psychology at first employed methods of research of natural sciences. Very soon, however, psychologists found new problems and devised procedures of their own.

There are a lot of fields in modern psychology. Modern society is turning more and more to psychology to deal with serious human problems. Psychologists can be found in labs doing research, in schools, in organizations, advertising, government and law enforcement agencies and just about any place one can think of. Psychologists work with business executives, performers, and athletes to reduce stress and improve performance. 

Vocabulary "Psychology as a science"

1. to be derived from - бфть заимствованным из
2. mental activity - умственная деятельность
3. human behaviour - поведение человека
4. basic functions - основные функции
5. learning - обучение
6. memory - память
7. language - язык
8. thinking - мышление
9. development - развитие
10. to investigate - исследовать
11. qualified investigator - квалифицированный исследователь
12. mental and physical health care - забота о психическом и физическом здоровье
13. to treat people - лечить людей
14. to be connected with - быть связанным с 
15. influence - влияние, влиять
16. brain - мозг
17. nervous system - нервная система
18. personal - личный
19. impersonal - безличный
20. launching - начало
21. to occur - появляться
22. to make contribution to - вносить вклад в 
23. to devise - разрабатывать
24. modern society - современное общество
25. to deal with - иметь дело с 

Careers in Psychology

There are many careers in psychology. Psychologists conduct research, serve as consultants, diagnose and treat people, test intelligence and personality.

As scientists, psychologists use scientific methods of observation, experimentation, and analysis. They develop theories and test them in their research. 

Clinical psychologists diagnose and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Some clinical psychologists treat specific problems while others focus on specific groups.

Counseling psychologists help people recognize their strengths and resources to fight with their problems. They pay attention to how problem and people differ across life stages. 

Educational or school psychologists concentrate on effectiveness of  teaching and learning. They assess and counsel students, consult with parents and school staff. 

Industrial/organizational psychologists apply psychological principles and research methods to the work place in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of work life. 

Rehabilitation psychologists work with stroke and accident victims, people with mental retardation, and those with developmental disabilities caused by such conditions as cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and autism.

Writing Business Letters

WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

Writing business letters is very important for normal business activity. Nowadays writing letters is more popular than ever before due to the Internet. In business people prefer to use e-mail than telephone communication, because it takes a lot of time to deal with the huge number of personal contacts. Besides, e-mail helps to work with foreign colleagues or international companies. Business correspondence serves to order a product, to provide or request information, to complain about something etc.

Sometimes business letters are written on printed company forms. The typical business letter consists of the following standard parts:

·       the heading (including the date)

·       the inside address

·       the greeting

·       the body of the letter

·       the complimentary close

·       the signature.

All these parts are separated with a double space. This way of typing letter on a computer is called the block format.

The heading contains the name of the company or a company logo, the postal address, the telephone number(s), the number of fax and e-mail address. Also the heading includes the date. The date is typed two spaces below the sender’s return address, always on the right-hand side.

The inside address is the address of the person or company receiving the letter. The name and address of the company to which a letter is written are usually typed on the left-hand side.

The greeting (salutation) follows two spaces below the inside address with the words Dear Sir(s), Dear Mr. Jones, Dear Ms Jones or Dear Dr Thomson. Very often comma is typed after the greeting.

Sometimes the writer places the subject line between the greeting and the body of the letter. The subject line helps to stress the purpose of a letter.

The body of the letter contains a message. The style of the business letter is formal. The language should be clear and natural. Sentences and paragraphs shouldn’t be too long. As business letters are written on behalf of a firm or company, the plural pronouns we and our are preferred to the singular ones I or my. Also the short forms such as we’ll or we’ve should be avoided in all formal letters.

The body of the letter consists of the introductory, main and concluding paragraphs. To separate different logical parts more effectively, additional spacing is used between paragraphs. In the introductory paragraph the author may refer to any previous correspondence or conversations, mention the sources of information and the reasons for writing the letter. The main paragraph gives information and facts concerning the subject of the letter. If there are some problems to describe in the main part, it is common to start a new paragraph for each idea or subject. In the concluding paragraph it is usual to express the hope for prospect collaboration or future success in business of the sender and correspondent.

The complimentary close is a way to express respect at the end of a business letter. The most common expressions used for the complimentary close are Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely.

A letter on paper should always be signed by hand and in ink, because a signature is a personal mark of the author. Below the personal signature it is necessary to type the name of the author, his position in the company or the name of the department he represents.

It is common to place the complimentary close, the personal and the typed signature on the left-hand side of the letter.

In a modern business letter, punctuation is used only in the sentences and in some abbreviations. There is no punctuation in the heading, the date or after the typed signature.

If there are enclosures, the abbreviation Encl. is typed in the bottom left-hand corner, with a short description of the enclosure (resume, price list, catalogue, copies of cheques, certificates, contracts, documents etc.).