Vocabulary Higher Education in Great Britain

1. higher education - высшее образование 
2. to provide smb  - обеспечить кого-л чем-то
3. to divide in - разделять на
4. independent - независимый
5. to be founded  - быть основанным
6. to set up - основать
7. private - частный
8. financial support - финансовая поддержка
9. responsible for - ответственный за
10. responsible to - ответственный перед
11. curriculum - учебный план
12. subject - предмет
13. full-time courses - очное обучение
14. sandwich courses - заочное обучение
15. to graduate from - окончить университет
16. graduate - выпускник
17. graduation - окончание университете
18. academic year - учебный год
19. term - семестр
20. tutorial - индивидуальное занятие
21. tutor - тьютор, репетитор
22. grant - грант, стипендия
23. tuition fees - стоимость обучения
24. public and private funds - государственные и частные фонды
25. department - кафедра. департамент, отдел.
26. degree - степень
27. Bachelor`s degree - степень бакалавра
28. Master`s degree - степень магистра
29. Doctor of Philosophy - доктор философии
30. assessment - оценка

Business English Внеаудиторное чтение

THE  MAGIC  OF  POSITIVE  THINKING

Most of today’s courses of positive thinking originate in America. Many start by advising you to try «positive affirmations* such as this one from Success Magazine. «Look in the mirror every morning and say to yourself «You are rare, unique and different. You were designed and engineered for success». Sounds embarrassing? Don’t forget that self-belief is crucial for success.

A pleasant smile is a strong indication of a friendly and open attitude and willingness to communicate. It’s a positive, nonverbal signal sent with the hope that the other person will smile back. When you smile, you demonstrate that you have noticed the person in a positive manner. The other person considers it a compliment and will usually feel good. The result? The other person will usually smile back. Smiling does not mean that you have to put on a phony* face or pretend that you are happy all the time. But when you see someone you know, you are demonstrating an open attitude to conversation.

You might not realize that closed posture* is the cause of many conversational problems. Typical closed posture is sitting with your legs crossed and your hand covering your mouth or chin. This is often called the «thinking pose», but just ask yourself this question: Are you going to interrupt someone who appears to be deep in thought? Without these receptive signals, another person will most likely avoid you and look for someone who appears to be more available for contact. To overcome this habitual way of standing or sitting start by keeping your hands away from your mouth, and keep your arms uncrossed. Crossed arms tend to indicate a defensive frame of mind*, and thus one not particularly favorable to outside contact. They can also indicate impatience, displeasure, or judgment* – any of which would discourage people from opening up. Open posture is most effective when you place yourself within communicating distance of the other person – that is, within about five feet. Take care, however, not to violate someone’s «personal space» by getting too close, too soon.

Leaning* forward slightly while a person is talking to you indicates interest on your part and shows you are listening to what the person is saying. This is usually taken as a compliment by the other person, and will encourage him to continue talking.

Often people will lean back with their hands behind their head in the «thinking» pose. This posture gives off signals of judgment, skepticis; and boredom from the listener. Since most people do not feel comfortable when they think they are being judged*, this leaning – back posture tends to inhibit* the speaker from continuing. It’s far better to lean forward slightly in a casual and natural way. By doing this, you are saying: «I hear what you’re saying, and I’m interested – keep talking!». This usually lets the other person feel that what he is saying is interesting, and encourages him to continue speaking.

positive affirmations – позитивные утверждения (установки)

phony – неискренний, фальшивый

closed posture – закрытая поза

to lean – наклоняться, сгибаться

frame of mind – расположение духа, настроение

judgment – (зд) критика

to judge – судить, осуждать

to inhibit – препятствовать, сдерживать

FOREIGN  BODIES

Understanding the body language of different nationalities – the way they use gestures, eye-contact, and touching to communicate without words – is an important part of communicating across cultures. In his book Foreign Bodies, Oxford University research psychologist, Dr Peter Collett, examines some of the differences among Europeans.

Gesture

Dr Collett suggests that if we compare the way different European nations use gestures, they fall into three groups. In the first group are the Nordic nations – the Swedes, Finns, Norwegians, and Danes – who use gestures very little. The second group includes nations such as the British, Germans, Dutch, Belgians, and Russians. They use some gestures, for example, when they are excited, or want to communicate over long distances, or to insult each other. The third group includes the Italians, Greeks, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. They use gestures a lot, to emphasize what they are saying, and to hold the other person’s attention. ‘Even when they are silent,’ says Dr Collett, ‘their hands are often busy sending messages through the medium of manual semaphore.’

Personal space

People’s sense of ‘personal space’ – the distance that separates them from another person – also varies between people of different nationalities. What feels right for one nationality may feel uncomfortable for another. British zoologist, Desmond Morris, has identified three ‘personal space’ zones in Europe. In countries such as Spain, France, Italy, and Greece, people stand close enough to touch each other easily.

Morris calls this the ‘elbow zone’. In East European countries such as Poland, Hungary, and Romania, people stand a little more distant. Morris calls this the ‘wrist zone’ because they are close enough to touch wrists. In Britain, Holland, Belgium, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries, people prefer to stand further away from each other, and they do not generallyb touch. This he calls the ‘fingertips zone’.

Eye-contact

Another cultural difference between nationalities is the amount of eye-contact between people. In countries where people stand close to each other, in Morris’s elbow zone, eye-contact is more frequent and lasts longer. Mediterranean countries, says Dr Collett, are ‘high-look’ cultures whereas north European countries are ‘high-look’ cultures. Children who grow up in a low-look culture learn that it is rude to look too long at another person. In a high-look culture, eye-contact, like physical contact and gestures, is a natural way of expressing your feelings and relating to other people. This explains why, for example, north Europeans visiting south European countries may feel uncomfortable at the way people look at them.

NON-VERBAL  COMMUNICATION

(Japanese culture)

Silence or what is not said can be just as important as what is said. If one point is said, the listener is expected to understand the others points that are not said. You must read in between the lines or pick up on what has been implied*. Often the subject of a sentence is not stated in so many words; it is just understood «who» or «what» is being referred to. In Japan, silence is just as important as speaking. It is a designated moment* to understand what has just been communicated. It is a moment to think and an opportunity to respond in a well thought out mannar, In the West, silence is considered as an awkward moment and we try to mask this uncomfortable feeling with words. It is best not to try to break the silence as you might appear insincere. It would be better to relax and appear patient with your Japanese counterpart. You should be considering the value of what has been said.

THE  UNCOMMITTED  FACE *  of the Japanese is very common. It is considered rude to overtly* express your emotions in public. The «Poker Face»* is used to cover up negative emotions as well as used as a shield to protect your privacy.

THE  SMILE can often be an expression that conceals embarrassment, pain, or anguish. In an uncomfortable situation it is not uncommon for the Japanese to give a nervous laugh or awkward smile to conceal the true emotion.

EYE  CONTACT  is often a Western signal for confidence or sincerity. In many cases, the Japanese consider direct and constant eye contact a rude gesture that means defiance* or challenge. The Japanese may shift their eyes or look down to show respect to another.

In the beginning, it is best to refrain* from forms of physical contact such as a pat on the back or a hug. The Japanese do not show signs of affection or emotion in public. Young couples may be seen holding hands, but it is embarrassing to see spouses kiss in public.

Material objects or items from someone are shown just as much respect as the person might be. Business cards are not folded, written on, or fiddled* with. A guest’s coat is not thrown over a chair but instead hung up carefully, sometimes taking care to brush away imaginary lint*. The wrapping paper on a gift that has been graciously presented is not crumpled up insignificantly, rather it is gently folded and the ribbon often retied around the paper or placed carefully on top of the wrapping paper. At a traditional Japanese restaurant or home, the guest’s shoes are placed together and turned around so that the guest can easily put his or her shoes back on when leaving. Furniture is used properly; you do not lean on a desk or sit on a table.

designated moment – определяющий (важный) момент

to imply – подразумевать

uncommitted face – безучастное выражение лица

overtly – открыто, публично

«Poker face» – бесстрастное, ничего не выражающее лицо

defience – пренебрежение

to refrain from – воздержаться

to fiddle – (зд) вертеть в руках

lint – (зд) ворсинка, пылинка

GOOD  MANNERS

(Japanese culture)

At all times, it is best to be humble*, respectful, and modest whether you are the host or guest. It is the host’s duty to make sure the guests are well-taken care of, sometimes to the point of smothering*. Guests should be conservative and reserved. Rarely does the Western idea of «help yourself» apply.

Guests are welcomed in a very particular manner, most times by the host and by other staff, family, or personnel. Guests are often received by someone from the host’s side, right from the guest’s bus or car door (as if the host has been waiting and expecting the guest). Guests are usually received in a specific room such as a conference room as opposed to your office.

Guests should be welcomed with polite and general statements. This is the time to thank each other for taking the time to visit or for a previous meeting. This is also the time for general apologies. The host will often offer several apologies for everything from the weather to the time of day. And the guest might apologize for the result of a previous meeting or situation. It is all said rather lightly, but it is also all a part of the greeting etiquette.

The host(s) should be quite perceptive* and anticipate a guest’s need. It is embarrassing for the guest to have to ask for something. Guests should generally not ask for anything as it is considered rude to directly state your wishes. For example, if a guest is holding something heavy, it is better to insist that you carry it than to ask: «Would you like me to carry it?» It is better to say, «I will call a taxi for you» than «Would you like me to call a taxi for you?»

Some kind of refreshment is usually served. The guest does not ask for an alternative. It would be better to take a polite sip or bite and politely decline an offer of something else if the host asks. The host has made a decision on what to serve and the guest kindly accepts the offering.

The host also invites the guest to actually drink or eat, even though something may have been already served. The guest is careful not to drink or eat until the host has said «Please» or Dozo. The Japanese host must offer their guests cream and sugar if coffee is being served and guests should not reach across the table for it (it would be better to drink the coffee black). The host(s) waits until the guests have begun before they eat or drink. On both sides, subordinates* begin only after their superiors do. If you do not want any more, simply leave your cup full.

When the guests leave, the host sees them off; often literally standing out on the street until the guests are out of sight. Just before disappearing from view, the guest turns to give one last wave or bow and it is important for the host to acknowledge this last gesture.

humble – скромный

to smother – оказывать чрезмерное внимание

perceptible – восприимчивый, предусмотрительный

subordinate – подчиненный

Пересказ Youth Work

Youth work is defined as activities that intentionally seek to impact older children and adolescents. The main purpose of youth work is to enhance the personal and social development of young persons. Youth workers normally perform managerial, analytical and consulting activities in the sphere of youth work.

 Different varieties of youth work include centre-based work, detached work, outreach youth work and school-based work.

Centre-based youth work is carried out at dedicated places, which may include facilities such as drop-in coffee bars, sports facilities and advice centres.

Detached youth work is a form of street-based youth work provision. Detached work is used as a method of delivering informal and social education.

Outreach youth work is a form of youth work that takes place on young people’s own territory and is a method of work that supports new and existing centres and projects. 

School-based work is normally carried out in schools. It may include lessons, assemblies, after-school clubs, one to one mentoring etc.

In the UK and lots of other countries, the main distinction is usually made between statutory youth workers, those who work for a government, and non-statutory ones, those that work as volunteers. Youth workers in the public sector often start a career in school or youth centre environment, which is relatively safe. With experience, they can be promoted to mentoring and counseling work.

English as a world Language

English as a World Language

       

English is spoken as a mother tongue in England, the USA, Canada, Australia, India. Today, when English is one of the major languages in the world, it requires an effort of the imagination to realize that this is a relatively recent thing – in Shakespeare’s time, for example, only a few million people spoke English.

English has become a world language because of its establishment¹ as a mother tongue outside England, in all the continents of the world. This exporting of English began in the seventeenth century, with the first settlements in North America. Above all, it is the great growth of population in the United States, assisted by massive immigration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, that has given English its present standing in the world. Geographically, English is the most widespread language on Earth, second only to Chinese in the number of people who speak it. It is the language of business, technology, sport, and aviation.

People who speak English fall into one of three groups: those who have learned it as their native language; those who have learned it as a second language in a society that is mainly bilingual; and those who are forced to use it for a practical purpose – administrative, professional or educational. One person in seven of the world’s entire population belongs to one of these three groups. Incredibly enough, 75 per cent of the world’s mail and 60 per cent of the world’s telephone calls are in English.

Basic characteristics of English are simplicity of form, flexibility and openness of vocabulary. Old English, like modern German, French, Russian and Greek, had many inflections to show singular and plural, tense, person, etc., but over the centuries words have been simplified. Verbs now have very few inflections, and adjectives do not change according to the noun.

As a result of the loss of inflections, English has become, over the past centuries, a very flexible language. Without inflections, the same word can operate as different parts of speech. Many nouns and verbs have the same form, for example,  walk, look, smile.

We can talk about water to drink and to water the flowers; a paper to read and to paper a bedroom. Adjectives can be used as verbs. We warm our hands in front of a fire; if clothes are dirtied they need to be cleaned and dried.

Sometimes even prepositions  can operate as verbs. A sixty-year old man is nearing retirement²; we can talk about a round of golf, cards, or drinks.

Openness of vocabulary involves the free admission of words³ from other languages and the easy creation of compounds and derivatives. Most world languages have contributed some words to English at some time, and the process is now being reversed. Purists of the French, Russian and Japanese languages are resisting the arrival of English in their vocabulary.

Notes:

1.because of its establishment... – потому, что он утвердился...

2.is nearing retirement – приближается к пенсионному возрасту

3.this involves the free admission of words - 

  это подразумевает свободное проникновение слов

Topic "The History of Psychology"

Many of the ideas of early researchers have made an important contribution into modern psychology.

The German physiologist W. Wundt is aptly known as the father of modern psychology. He launched the discipline as a science to be studied by means of systematic methods.

The functionalists broadened the definition of psychology. They drew attention to the importance of mental life in adapting to the environment. 

The behaviorists further enhanced an understanding of learning, with their stress on the importance of rewards and punishments. John Watson formulated the goals of behaviorism in 1913.  He was credited with discovering trial-and-error learning. 

The gestaltists reemphasized the mental processes that the behaviorists had neglected. They believed that the mind inevitably brings together the various pieces of data the sense organs register, forming them into the perception of a whole. This whole they called a Gestalt (form or pattern).

Cognitive psychology has developed since 1950s. It studies cognitive processes in many areas including learning, memory, problem solving, etc. 

Freud also made a significant contribution. Freud called attention to the frequent importance of early life and to existence of unconscious motives.

Finally, the humanists such as A. Maslow and C. Rogers stressed the uniqueness of individuals and potential for freedom of choice. 

Concepts from the past form the foundation for current approaches to different psychological problems.

Topic"The Role of Youth"

Youth is the time of life between the childhood and adulthood. The age in which a person is considered a “youth” is from 13-14 years old to up 29 years old. 

Nowadays youth is increasingly seen as a crucial segment of society. Their attitudes, values, mind-set, and priorities will determine the development of the society in the future.

Young people have always been dynamic in their approach to life. They are ready to change themselves.  

The awareness of their role in the world is the main reason for establishing numerous youth organizations and movements. Youth movements provide an opportunity for young people to put their feelings and ideals into action, to make an impact on the world around them. 

Around the world there are hundreds and thousands of voluntary youth organizations. These organizations are established to support young people, help them to express their ideas and believes. Some of youth organizations are adult-led and have government and financial support. Apart from adult-led organizations, there are many youth-led organizations

Y

The Role of Youth

The Role of Youth

Youth is the time of life between the childhood and adulthood (maturity). The age in which a person is considered a “youth”, and has specific rights and obligations under the law is from 13-14 years old to up 29 years old.

Nowadays youth is increasingly seen as a crucial segment of society. Youth is now believed to be a vital part of society, influencing, often forming and shaping its concepts, culture and policies. Their attitudes, values, mind-set, and priorities will determine the development of the society in the future.

Young people have always been dynamic in their approach to life. Due to their age and immature understanding, youths are always in search of ideal and values to get inspiration and basis for their life. They are ready to change themselves and have proved that they can be powerful agents of change. Today`s youth have a greater vision of the purpose of their life and what role they themselves can play in their own development. New generation youth has more awareness of their responsibility towards the development of the society.

The awareness of their role in the world is probably the main reason for establishing numerous youth organizations and movements. Youth movements provide an opportunity for young people to put their feelings and ideals into action, to make an impact on the world around them; by helping others and by building their land; and not least importance , to form connections with other young people around the globe whose ideals  match and complement their own.

Around the world there are hundreds and thousands of voluntary youth organizations. These organizations have various objectives, but there are some which are common to most of them, that is fostering and taking actions for mutual understanding and respect, democracy and human rights of people in general, and if youth in particular both locally and globally.

Some of youth organizations are adult-led and have government and financial support, for example: The World Organization of the Scout Movement,  The World Association of Girl Guides  and Girl Scouts, The World Alliance of Young Men`s Christian Associations  (YMCA), The World Young Women`s Christian Association (YWCA). There are also dozens of regional youth organizations, such as European Youth Forum or Asian Youth Council, representing the interests of youth in different regions of the world.      

The United Nations Organization has several programs particularly for young people. UNESCO`s objectives is to help empower young people, responding to their expectations and ideas, fostering useful and long-lasting skills. The United Nations Environment Program aims to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.

Apart from adult-led organizations, there are many youth-led organizations.     

Topic "Psychology as a Science"

The word «psychology» is derived from the Greek word meaning «study of the soul». Psychology as a science studies mental activity and human behaviour. Psychologists study basic functions such as learning, memory, language, thinking, emotions and motives. They are involved in mental and physical health care. 

Psychology is closely connected with many sciences such as sociology and biology.  

There are three stages of developing psychology: prescientific, philosophical and scientific.   Psychology achieved scientific status when it became experimental.

The formal launching of psychology as a separate science occurred in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt opened his Psychological Institute at the University of Leipzig. Scientific psychology at first employed methods of research of natural sciences. Very soon, however, psychologists found new problems and devised procedures of their own.

There are a lot of fields in modern psychology. Modern society is turning more and more to psychology to deal with serious human problems. Psychologists can be found in labs doing research, in schools, in organizations, advertising, government and law enforcement agencies and just about any place one can think of. Psychologists work with business executives, performers, and athletes to reduce stress and improve performance. 

Vocabulary "Psychology as a science"

1. to be derived from - бфть заимствованным из
2. mental activity - умственная деятельность
3. human behaviour - поведение человека
4. basic functions - основные функции
5. learning - обучение
6. memory - память
7. language - язык
8. thinking - мышление
9. development - развитие
10. to investigate - исследовать
11. qualified investigator - квалифицированный исследователь
12. mental and physical health care - забота о психическом и физическом здоровье
13. to treat people - лечить людей
14. to be connected with - быть связанным с 
15. influence - влияние, влиять
16. brain - мозг
17. nervous system - нервная система
18. personal - личный
19. impersonal - безличный
20. launching - начало
21. to occur - появляться
22. to make contribution to - вносить вклад в 
23. to devise - разрабатывать
24. modern society - современное общество
25. to deal with - иметь дело с